Pangolins, also called scaly anteaters, are insectivorous mammals characterized by keratinized, overlapping scales on their bodies. They specialize in consuming termites and ants, capturing them with exceptionally long tongues that, in some species, measure over half the combined length of the head and body.
Although pangolins are often mistaken for anteaters (order Pilosa) due to their similar diet, and armadillos (order Cingulata) because of their scaly appearance, they belong to a distinct order, Pholidota. Most species are nocturnal, foraging actively at night and resting during the day. If threatened, they curl their bodies in a posture of defense, exposing their hard scales to their predators.
Currently, 8 species of pangolins are grouped under 3 subfamilies: Maninae (Asian pangolins), Phatagininae (Small African pangolins), and Smutsiinae (Large African pangolins). While members of Maninae are found in Asia, those of Phatagininae and Smutsiinae are found in sub-Saharan Africa.
Pangolins are the most trafficked mammals in the world, primarily due to illegal trade in their scales and meat.
On average, pangolins range between 30 and 100 cm (12 to 39 in) in head-and-body length. The largest species, the giant pangolin, measures up to 1.8 m (70.8 in) in total body length, including the tail, which measures approximately 50 to 65 cm (about 20 to 25.6 in). It weighs around 33 kg (72.7 lb). In contrast, the smallest species, the long-tailed pangolin, is only about 80 cm long, including the tail, and typically weighs around 1.6 kg (3.5 lb).
In many species, like Indian pangolins, the males are heavier than their female counterparts, while in others, like Sunda pangolins, there is no such dimorphism in weight.
These mammals are covered by hard, overlapping scales that resemble artichoke leaves or pine cones. These scales are composed of keratin (the component of nails and claws) and vary in color from light brown to olive or dark brown, depending on the species. However, their undersides, including chest, belly, and lower limbs, are devoid of scales and have sparse to moderately dense fur. In some species, like the Indian pangolin, the scales extend to the underside of the tail.
With pointed snouts and small eyes, their conical heads feature toothless jaws and remarkably long tongues. In large species, like the giant pangolin, the tongue is about 0.5 cm wide and extends up to 70 cm in length when protruded. The root of the tongue lies between the sternum and the trachea instead of the hyoid bone, an adaptation which helps extend the tongue for extracting insects from deep, narrow tunnels.
They have stout legs, with each foot having five toes. The forefeet possess three long, curved claws that help break into insect nests.
While species like the long-tailed pangolin have a fully prehensile tail, others like the white-bellied and Sunda pangolins possess semi-prehensile tails. Ground pangolins, by contrast, have non-prehensile tails.
Owing to their scales, pangolins superficially resemble armadillos. However, they have small, rounded ears and lack teeth, unlike armadillos, which typically have pointed ears and possess peg-like teeth.
The name Pholidota has its roots in an Ancient Greek word, pholís, which translates to ‘scales,’ while the term ‘pangolin’ comes from the Malay word pengguling, which refers to ‘one who rolls up.’ The name pangolin was first used for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), which rolls onto itself for defense.
The 8 extant species of pangolins are grouped under 3 subfamilies, all of which belong to the only extant family, Manidae, under the suborder Eupholidata.
Though Pholidota was initially considered to be a sister group to xenarthrans (superorder Xenarthra), which includes anteaters, sloths, and armadillos, recent genetic studies reveal that they are the closest relatives of carnivorans (order Carnivora). Together, Carnivora and Pholidota form a miroder called Ferae. The carnivorans and pangolins are believed to have diverged around 79 million years ago. Asian and African pangolins have most likely split around 41 million years ago.
As their name suggests, the four species of Asian pangolins — the Chinese, Indian, Palawan, and Sunda pangolins — are found in Asia, while the giant, white-bellied, ground, and long-tailed pangolins live in sub-Saharan Africa.
Although these mammals primarily inhabit tropical forests, savannah grasslands, and swamp forests, some species, like the white-bellied pangolin, occasionally venture into agricultural lands and plantations near forest edges.
While arboreal species, like the Sunda and the white-bellied pangolin, often rest in hollow tree logs, ground-dwelling species, such as the ground pangolin, take refuge in subterranean tunnels.
These animals are insectivores, primarily feeding on ants and termites, including the larvae of both. Since they typically target large ant and termite colonies, each foraging session yields insects from only one or two species.
However, when the primary food sources are scarce, pangolins may supplement their diet with flies, earthworms, crickets, and bee larvae.
Most pangolins sleep curled up like a ball during the day, but the long-tailed pangolin is the only diurnal species and spends its daytime foraging. Adult pangolins are generally solitary, but they form pair bonds during the breeding season.
Ground-dwelling species, such as the ground pangolin, walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad (knuckle-walking) to keep their sharp claws from wearing away. However, they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Moreover, Indian pangolins have been found to stand on their rear limbs and rest their forelimbs against a vertical surface (supporting bipedal stance), especially when they scan their surroundings and need an enhanced field of view.
Some species, like the long-tailed pangolin, can also swim by using their prehensile tails as rudders to steer forward through water.
These animals dig burrows using their front legs and claws, anchoring their bodies on their rear legs and tail. As they push deeper into the burrow, their tough scales scrape along the walls and ceiling.
To stay warm, the Chinese pangolin spends most of the winter months resting in burrows. Built next to termite nests, these tunnels allow it to feed without venturing into the cold.
Using their snouts, pangolins sniff out termite mounds, ant nests, or decaying logs, which they break open with their strong claws. They then extend their long, sticky tongues to suck up the insects.
When threatened, these mammals quickly curl up into a motionless ball, exposing only their armored scales to their predators (volvation).
If disturbed, ground-dwelling pangolins lash their sharp-edged tails, followed by rapid expulsion of air from the mouth, causing a hissing sound. In between hisses, they may gulp air into the lungs and then release it in short puffs.
Pangolins also secrete a foul-smelling chemical from paired anal glands to repel aggressors.
The lifespan of pangolins in the wild remains poorly documented, primarily because of their nocturnal habits and secretive behavior. However, captive lifespans are well-documented and vary widely among the species. For example, the ground pangolin lives up to 20 years under proper care, whereas the Sunda pangolin typically has a lifespan of around 5 years in captivity.
These mammals usually mate only once each year. While some species, like ground pangolins, mate between summer and autumn, others, such as the long-tailed pangolin, mate year-round.
The males mark their territories with feces or urine, which helps females locate them. Being nocturnal, they typically mate at night, with the males of some species, like ground pangolins, using their tails to fend off other rival males attempting to approach the female.
After a gestation period of about 70 to 140 days, the females typically give birth to a single offspring. However, the four Asiatic species may give birth to as many as three young, though occasionally. At birth, the young are about 150 mm (6 in) long, weigh around 80 to 450 gm, and have soft, white scales. With time, their scales darken and harden like those of adults.
The mother pangolin stays with her young in a burrow, nursing them with milk and shielding them from predators. The offspring of arboreal pangolins cling to the mother’s tail as she moves around. In contrast, burrowing species tend to remain inside their burrows for the first 2 to 4 weeks after birth. By around 3 months, the young begin eating independently and are gradually weaned. They reach sexual maturity at around 2 years of age and separate from their mothers.
Asian pangolins are primarily preyed upon by large snakes, like pythons, and carnivores, such as tigers and leopards. While wading in rivers, Indian pangolins are also attacked by crocodiles.
African pangolins face the greatest predation pressure from lions, hyenas, and raptors such as eagles.
Pangolins are the most trafficked mammal in the world, primarily due to the illegal trade of their scales. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), between 2014 and 2018, over 185 tons of pangolin scales were seized globally. These scales are smuggled, particularly to China and Vietnam, where they are used in traditional medicine.
In African countries, like Ghana and Nigeria, the meat of white- and black-bellied pangolins is consumed as a delicacy. All extant pangolin species are listed in the IUCN Red List under the following categories:
| Species | IUCN Category |
|---|---|
| Chinese Pangolin, Sunda Pangolin, Palawan pangolin, Indian pangolin | Critically Endangered (CR) |
| White-bellied pangolin, Giant pangolin | Endangered (EN) |
| Ground pangolin, Long-tailed pangolin | Vulnerable (VU) |
Additionally, all pangolins are listed under Appendix I of CITES, which bans the commercial trade of these animals internationally.
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