Golden moles are small, burrowing mammals native to sub-Saharan Africa. They superficially resemble true moles (family Talpidae) and marsupial moles (family Notoryctidae) but belong to a separate family, Chrysochloridae, under the order Afrosoricida. Phylogenetically, their closest relatives are the tenrecs and otter shrews.
These mammals derive their name from their dense, iridescent fur that reflects light in golden or metallic tones. Their tiny ears and vestigial eyes remain hidden under the fur.
They are excellent at digging, equipped with a large pick-like claw on their third toe, as well as webbed toes on their hind feet.
There are 21 recognized species of golden moles.
They range in size from around 3.1 in (7.8 cm) to about 7.9 in (20 cm). The largest species, the giant golden mole, measures 7.9 to 9.4 in (20 to 24 cm), while the smallest species, Grant’s golden mole, is about 3.1 to 3.5 in (8 to 9 cm) long and weighs less than 1 oz.
These animals have fusiform or spindle-shaped bodies that are broad in the middle and taper toward the ends. The body is covered in dense fur, specially adapted to repel dirt and moisture, with colors ranging from pale yellow to gray or black. This fur is iridescent, reflecting light in golden or metallic tones, a trait that inspires the name of these mammals.
Their shoulders are muscular, and their short forelimbs are modified for digging through the soil. All the toes on the forefeet are reduced in size, though the third toe bears a large, pick-like claw. In contrast, the five toes on the hind feet are webbed to ensure easy displacement of soil while digging.
The head is covered with tough skin, and the muzzle is wedge-shaped with an enlarged, leathery nose pad called the rhinarium. Their eyes are vestigial and covered with fur; hence, they appear to be blind. Although these mammals have small ears, they have a hypertrophied malleus bone (one of the largest relative to the body size of any animal) and a long, highly coiled cochlea.
In golden moles, the hyoid and mandibular bones of the skull are articulated in a way that allows the conduction of ground vibrations through the lower jaw to the inner ear. These animals have a pair of bones called tabulars in the occipital region, a feature not found in any other mammal.
The zygomatic arch is formed by an elongation of the maxilla, in contrast to most mammals, where the jugal and squamosal bones typically form the arch.
The first incisor is enlarged, while the lateral incisors and first premolars are canine-like. The molars are zalambodont, characterized by a V- or lambda-shaped crest.
In 1758, Carl Linnaeus first described these mammals, particularly the species Cape golden mole, in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. He initially named the species Talpa asiatica, placing it in the genus Talpa. Later taxonomic revisions, however, reclassified the species into the genus Chrysochloris, giving it its current scientific name, Chrysochloris asiatica.
In 1882, Dobson noted that these mammals had zalambodont teeth like tenrecs (family Tenrecidae), but Broom (1916) and other authors argued against his observations, saying different mammalian lineages have evolved zalambodont molars independently several times through convergent evolution.
Despite Broom’s reasoning, golden moles were initially classified under the order Insectivora (now obsolete) based on their affinity to tenrecs owing to zalambodonty. However, in 1998, after studies on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences, golden moles and tenrecs were assigned to a separate order, Afrosoricida[1].
Based on observations from Miocene deposits, golden moles are believed to have diverged from tenrecs around 50 million years ago and have very few morphological traits inherited from a common ancestor. Thus, the two groups have been placed under distinct suborders (Tenrecomorpha for tenrecs and Chrysochloridea for golden moles).
The 21 species of golden moles are divided into 2 subfamilies: Chrysochlorinae and Amblysominae. Members of Chrysochlorinae possess an enlarged, conical malleus bone, whereas those in Amblysominae have a less developed malleus.
The De Winton’s golden mole was not sighted since 1937 until it was rediscovered in November 2023 through environmental DNA tracking.
Golden moles are native to sub-Saharan Africa, with the highest species diversity in South Africa. In fact, only three species are found outside this country: the Congo golden mole (found in the equatorial forests and woodlands of central Africa), the Somali golden mole (found in the woodlands of Somalia), and the Stuhlmann’s golden mole (found in the montane forests of east and central Africa).
They inhabit various natural landscapes, including forests, savannas, sandy riverbeds, rocky hillsides, grasslands, as well as man-made settings, such as cultivated fields and golf courses. These mammals are found across a wide range of altitudes, with individuals recorded at sea level to elevations of about 10,800 ft (3,300 m).
They are opportunistic insectivores that typically feed on termites, beetles, crickets, and grasshoppers. However, when insects are scarce, they may consume earthworms, millipedes, and small vertebrates, like lizards and burrowing snakes.
Most golden moles are nocturnal and forage at night, though a few species, like the giant golden mole, are often found foraging in daytime on cool and cloudy days[2].
Adult golden moles are mostly solitary and maintain territories, which they defend more fiercely when resources are limited.
These animals are subterranean and dig through soil by thrusting their strong heads into it. In this process, they build subsurface burrows or tunnels by digging out the soil of the lower layers with their claws and throwing it above the ground, creating raised ridges or mounds (mole hills). Some species, especially those in the genera Amblysomus and Neamblysomus, use their webbed hindfeet for digging and end up building deeper tunnels.
While permanent burrows, as long as about 3 ft (1 m), are used for shelter, deeper chambers are used for other purposes, like searching for food or even as a site for excretion.
Owing to their poor vision, golden moles generally use their auditory sense to search for prey. They are sensitive to vibrations, pausing periodically to dip their heads beneath the soil, where they detect the movement of insects and the distinctive drumming alarm signals of termites.
These mammals often cover distances of up to 6 km (3.7 mi) in a single night while searching for food. Since some species living in deserts, like the Grant’s golden mole, cannot build tunnels in sand, they ‘sand-swim,’ paddling through loose sand using their claws. Others, like those in the genus Chrysospalax, forage above the ground in leaf litter.
Golden moles are primarily solitary animals, briefly interacting only during mating. The females raise their newborns in a single burrow, but the juveniles disperse and live independently shortly after being weaned.
When attacked, Hottentot golden moles react aggressively by wrestling with their foreclaws and biting their opponent’s abdomen. During these encounters, they also emit high-pitched squeaks.
Although reproduction in golden moles remains poorly documented, the relatively well-studied species, such as the Hottentot golden mole, are aseasonal breeders, having no particular breeding season[3]. However, females of this species are found to have enhanced follicular development during the wet summer months, and thus, reproductive activity typically peaks around this time[4].
During the breeding season, males engage in different courtship behaviors to attract females. These include emitting soft, high-pitched chirruping sounds, head bobbing, and foot stamping. In response to such courtship, the females rasp and squeal to signal their sexual receptivity to the males.
After mating, the females build grass-lined nests, where they give birth to up to three hairless offspring.
These mammals are typically preyed upon by fossorial snakes, including sand boas, mole snakes, and some species of pythons. When they forage above the ground, owls may snatch them away.
In areas with human settlements, golden moles may be killed by domestic cats and dogs.
These animals face constant threats from habitat loss, unsustainable farming practices, and sand mining. The following table lists the threat levels of the different species of golden mole under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
| Species | IUCN Category |
|---|---|
| De Winton’s golden mole | Critically Endangered (CR) |
| Marley’s golden mole, Giant golden mole, Van Zyl’s golden mole, Gunning’s golden mole, Juliana’s golden mole | Endangered (EN) |
| Rough-haired golden mole, Duthie’s golden mole, Arend’s golden mole, Robust golden mole | Vulnerable (VU) |
| Fynbos golden mole, Highveld golden mole | Near Threatened (NT) |
| Grant’s golden mole, Sclater’s golden mole, Yellow golden mole, Hottentot golden mole, Stuhlmann’s golden mole | Least Concern (LC) |
| Congo golden mole, Visagie’s golden mole, Somali golden mole | Data Deficient (DD) |
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